The Cultural Homogenisation And Heterogenisation Cultural Studies Essay

The Cultural Homogenisation And Heterogenisation Cultural Studies Essay Taking a unilayered view on culture can easily result in limited equations such as homogenisation does not equal homogenisation, since homogenisation evokes heterogenisation, and both processes are occurring at the same time. Yet, by using Rams concept (2004) of the one-way institutional homogenisation and two-way symbolic heterogenisation level enables us to differentiate where homogenisation and heterogenisation are taking place. Lets consider some examples to grasp this concept. In Rams example, Falafel, Israels national dish, which was on its demise, experienced a renaissance through the arrival of hamburgers. He argues that McDonaldisation represents homogenisation on the institutional level (victory of foreign culture) and the renaissance of falafel represents heterogenisation on the symbolic level (victory of local culture). The examples of the tattoo culture in Japan (Yamada, 2009), and the Toraja culture (Volkman, 1984) exhibit a similar pattern. In the Japanese culture, tat toos have long been appreciated, particularly since earlier beginnings of the mid 18th century, when so called full body suits tattooing started. This culture has been evident in the population groups of lovers, geishas, prostitutes, and criminals. Yet, the Meiji Restauration in 1868 led to Westernisation and changed Japanese attitudes towards tattoos. What was initially viewed as spiritual and stylish suddenly changed to be viewed as abhorrent. Japanese tattoo culture, however, experienced a renaissance through incorporating American one point tattoos. In the case of the Toraja, an ethnic group in Indonesia, lengthy funeral ceremonies experienced a revival. Through improvement in mobility, thousands of Torajans immigrated to Massakar and other places in the 1930s to find jobs. Most of them were open-minded, well-educated young people that had converted into Christianity. When they came back to Toraja they did not try to eradicate traditional funeral practises and replace them with Christian or more cosmopolitan values, in the contrary they were the main promoters to revive the tradition. It is important to understand that the above mentioned revivals did not merely bring back a dying tradition. However, they brought back an old tradition with redefined meanings. This is particularly evident in the case of falafel, which lost its unique taste, is nowadays served indoor, and produced in a standardised manner. Therefore, the feelings attached to buying a falafel are very likely to have changed compared to 50 years ago. Furthermore, one-point tattoos do not bear the same spiritual meaning as full body suits tattoos, and funeral ceremonies in Toraja are nowadays more a practice to attract tourists, and showing off wealth. Put simply, they lost its spiritual meaning and authenticity. Rams concept is a very useful, differentiated concept for understanding the forces that shape cultural homogenisation and heterogenisation. Nevertheless, it is limited in its assumption that homogenisation on the institutional level is a one-way street (Ram, 2004, p. 24). Yet, it is much more a two-way street with different proportions of power as the expressive symbolic level (ibid., p. 23). Polarisation Contemporary scholars such as Appadurai (2006) and Lieber Weisberg (2002) question Samuel Huningtons theory of Clash of Civilisations. Appadurai claims that the theory is flawed since it leaves only geography, instead of emphasising ideology. He therefore suggests renaming the polarisation theory into Clash of Ideocide. Furthermore, Lieber Weisberg argue that the clash is rather within than between cultures. I prefer Appadurais, Lieber, and Weisbergs views, because they shifted the topic from the ethnic to an ideological level and acknowledge deterritorialisation, which will be discussed in the next section. Even though, Huningtons concept is flawed, he might be correct with his notion of polarisation. As an example let us consider Axelrods (1997) experiment in the field of cultural convergence, which contributed to shed some light on this debate. He developed a mathematical model, which he used to find out how many stable homogenised states remain at the end of the experiment (a r un). His model is based on the assumption that the more similar cultures are to each other, the more likely they will eventually homogenise. The number of stable homogenised regions at the end differed depending on the run. His findings indicate amongst others that polarisation increased the more cultural features (cultural dimensions) were used, because of the higher probability of being similar on one of the features. However, the more traits were attached to a feature the more stable homogenised states resulted at the end, meaning less polarisation. For instance, a feature could be the language people speak, and the traits the various alternative languages that might be spoken in that particular state. This model, however, has its limitations like any other model. In my opinion, the model correctly assumes that similar cultures are more likely to become homogenised. But it lacks to consider the inverse effect of heterogenisation, which we could observe in the examples of falafel, Toraja, and tattoo culture. Additionally, his attempt to simulate interconnectedness resulted in regional- rather than global interconnectedness. Nevertheless, the experiment demonstrates that polarisation can take place under certain conditions, and that the outcome of polarisation is ambiguous. This supports the transformalists view that the massive shake out, caused by globalisation, remains uncertain (Giddens, 1996). It is doubtful that cultures become polarised at an ideological level, as individuals have the desire to distinguish themselves from others by nature (Axelrod, 1997). However, it is conceivable that future events, which people associate with religion, could indeed lead to a Clash of Ideocide, leaving two or three clear distinguishable, unharmonisable, and antagonised cultures. Complexity of measuring culture Even though, plenty of research has been done in the field of measuring cultures, e.g. by Trompenaar and Hampden-Turner (2008) or Geert Hofstede (2003), present studies provide us with limited results. To think that we can measure cultures rests on the assumption that there is in any case a definable, lived national culture(Held, 1999, p. 369). Yet, being British or American does not define who you are: It is part of who you are (Legrain, 2003, p. 6). Furthermore, societies do not share values and interests. They are rather contradicting social structures, which are constantly trying to find compromises (Castells, 2009). The phenomenon of deterritorialisation is also particularly making it difficult to determine the trajectory of globalisation. This concept represents the uncoupling of territory and culture through world interconnectedness (Held, 1999). A few clicks suffice to connect with the world and get exposed to the foreign. However, according to Wolfgang Welschs concept of Transculturality (1999) there is nothing absolutely foreign anymore, since everything is within reach. A notion which is in accordance with Appadurais view that there is no distinct we and they anymore (2006). Yet, foreign cultures are not within reach for everyone. There exist huge inequalities between countries and within societies when it comes to internet access (Held, 1999; ITU, 2009). In this context one could ask to which extent the not-haves influence the countrys elite, which is connected to the world? And how much do foreign television programmes and homepages influence a society? To answer this question one could utilise Giulianotti and Robertsons concept regarding migration strategies (2007). It assumes that individuals use strategies to either accept or reject foreign ideas and practices. Taking that as a basis, we can conclude that individuals do not passively absorb foreign cultural traits. They either actively absorb them because of preference or convenience or actively reject them. Lets consider an example to illustrate the complexity of this subject. Think of a Norwegian businessperson who newly drinks coffee at Starbucks in Oslo. Does that tell us how American he has become, if at all? Did the meaning he attaches to coffee change in any way? From this example it should get clear that by only analysing hard facts, such as counting the number of McDonalds, BMWs, Swiss Watches, etc. in a country cannot give us a comprehensive answer of how homogenised cultures are. However, it is beyond doubt that the explicit cultural layer is influencing the implicit one; the question is rather to whi ch extent. To determine the magnitude of this influence is indeed a tough nut to crack. As we discussed earlier in this section, societies are contradicting social structures comprising people with different cultures. Therefore, one can assume that different personalities take different decisions in rejecting and accepting foreign cultural traits. Lets assume an example of a French citizen that regards himself as cosmopolitan, speaks seven languages, travels around the world but is fighting in the front line for rigorous migration policies in his country. In this case he welcomes global cultural flows to France, with the exception of unqualified immigrants and refugees, which make part of the ethnoscape one of Appadurais five cultural flows (Appadurai, 2002). In contrast, another French citizen might feel responsible to help those people in need, however, might reject any foreign ideology that is not in accordance with his religious view. Who in this case is now the cosmopolitan and who is the heartlander (Goh, 1999)? This favouritism towards particular types of global isation flows is also evident in the example of the Israeli businessperson Ezer Weizman. He was a renowned car importer with strong business connections to the US. Yet, he fought at the forefront against the three Ms: McDonalds, Michael Jackson and Madona (Ram, 2004, p. 18). The same particularistic behaviour shows the Indian elite that basically hates American lifestyle, however, sends their children to US universities and tries to pursue the American dream (Appadurai, 2006). In the Middle-East this phenomenon is called Muslim schizophrenia (Lieber Weisberg, 2002). The final example to illustrate my point, uses the case of the Russian youth who welcomes technological advances such as iPods but does not want to emulate the spiritual nature of American lifestyle (Macgregor, 2008). Conclusion This essay demonstrated the complexity of this topic and showed that polarisation, homogenisation, and heterogenisation are simultaneously shaping contemporary society. I therefore support the view of the transformalists who believe that the direction of the shake out, caused by globalisation, remains uncertain. Nevertheless, we might ask which concept is more prevalent in contemporary society. In my opinion it is homogenisation, since the homogenisation process on the structural level is very intense and the heterogenisation process, like Ram stated, rather symbolic. The homogenisation process is mainly driven by communication technology, education, human rights culture, business attempt to eliminate difference, and the desire to increase efficiency through latest technology. It can be expected that those drivers of homogenisation will continue to shape society in the future. Homogenisation, however, will neither reach its pure form nor remain static, as people want to distinguish themselves by nature and will actively reject foreign cultures. At this point, I want to emphasise that the homogenisation trend might shift in some decades towards a dominance of heterogenisation or polarisation. Issues like climate change, wars, shifts in economic and political power, and dramatic events that people associate with religion could have unpredictable outcomes.

Mother’s Last Days :: Personal Narrative Profile Essays

Mother’s Last Days Welcome to the Glenbrook Retirement Home. May I ask who you are visiting? Oh yes, you must be Mrs. Mitchell’s son. She talks about you so often. Right this way. Ignore the other patients peeking from behind their doors. Walk past them, down the long hallway. You are the outsider here. Don’t forget that; you are now the crazy one, not them. In this place, sanity is like a dream that you struggle to remember throughout the day. Scott, so nice to see you again. It’s been a while since your last visit. She asks about you every day. She’s just inside, go on in. How is she today doctor? Ask anyway, even though the answer never changes. Touch and go, really, no way to tell what will set her off. Honestly, she’s had better days. You don’t have to stay long. Just let her know you’re here and then you can be on your way. Open the door; that is the first step. Open it slowly, don’t frighten her. She is like a child, and you the careful parent. Try not to cringe as you walk into the small room that your mother now calls home. Try not to smell the musty odor that pervades everything. Try not to wonder what sort of purgatory you have confined her to. Who the hell do you think you are? Get out of my room! Doctor, doctor! Caress her hand as she whimpers. Stroke her wispy white hair and wonder why no one bothers to brush it anymore. It’s me, mom. It’s me. Deep breaths. Just start talking, that’s the only way to get through this visit. Tell her one more time who you are. Tell her one more time about her grandchildren, her grandchildren who are too afraid of her screaming fits to come with you anymore. Tell her about your job and your new house. Tell her all of these things so she can forget them again. Know that is all that she can do. I don’t know you. I’ve never seen you before. Away†¦get away from me. Tell her your name, tell her that you love her, that you’re here for her. Show her pictures of the kids, tell her about Lisa’s school play and Taylor’s soccer game. She was the star. He scored the winning goal. Stay for as long as you can this time, before saying, I really have to go now mother.

ARLT: Chinese Imagination Essay -- essays research papers

Repay your love and friendship Chinese literature, for example, ancient poetry, lyrics, and traditional Chinese stories, reveals many different kinds of good personalities of people. According to a famous ancient Chinese philosopher, Confucius ( ¿Ãƒâ€"Ãâ€"Ó), men are born to be kind (ÈËÃâ€" ®Ã‚ ³Ãƒ µÃ‚ ©o à Ãƒâ€Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€°Ãƒâ€ ). Everyone has his or her own good qualities and sometimes they are just hidden and needed to be explored and discovered. In traditional China, people had a strong sense of repayment (ˆÃ ³Ã‚ ´Ãƒ °). People who do not have this ability to repay others who have helped them before are usually being looked down on. The sense of repayment is perhaps a product of a good friendship or love. And the boundary of love here in this case, is not only about the love between couples but all different kinds of love also, for instance, the love between family members. Therefore, repayment is in fact tied in with the theme of filial piety. People ¡Ã‚ ¯s devotion to and their respect for their parents or elders are actually a form of repayment. In the story,  ¡Ã‚ °The Courtesan Li Wa, ¡Ã‚ ± Li Wa is surely very respectful to her  ¡Ã‚ °mother ¡Ã‚ ± though she is not her real mother who gives birth to Li Wa. While Li Wa and the young man are taking a rest at Li Wa ¡Ã‚ ¯s aunt ¡Ã‚ ®s place, she gets a message that her mother is ill, suffering very badly and cannot even recognize the people in the house. Li Wa, without a doubt, decides to go back immediately to see her mother without even considering the young man. Though I have to say that I personally doubt that this is in fact a proper and an appropriate way to handle this situation, Li Wa has certainly shown her respect and devotion to her so-called  ¡Ã‚ °mother ¡Ã‚ ±. A while later in the story, the young man fails to find Li Wa and her aunt. He has been roaming about and at some point close to death due to illness. He ends up being employed by the mortuaries to sing. On one occasion, the young man ¡Ã‚ ¯s father happens to be there and an old servant recognizes the young man. His father takes him out of there, stripped him, flogs him with a horse whip several hundred times and leaves him for dead. The young man does not end up in death because the youth ¡Ã‚ ¯s music instructor sends someone to keep and eye on him. At this point of the story, the young man ¡Ã‚ ¯s relationship with his father has already broken and the young man ¡Ã‚ ¯s father even thinks that his son is beaten to death by himse... ... Kuo goes to visit them. Here at this point in the story, Kuo repays Wu for all he has done to rescue himself back in the days when Kuo is captured by the barbarians. He carries Wu ¡Ã‚ ¯s and his wife ¡Ã‚ ¯s bones back to their native place along with their son Wu T ¡Ã‚ ¯ien-yu and on the road he once says,  ¡Ã‚ °Yung-ku (Wu Pao-an ¡Ã‚ ¯s style name) labored for ten years for my sake. Carrying his bones for a little while is the least gesture I can make to show my gratitude. ¡Ã‚ ± After they arrive, Kuo shows his respect for Wu as if Wu is his father and does what a son would do when his father dies and  ¡Ã‚ °every detail of the burial arrangements is the same as when he has buried his father. ¡Ã‚ ± Kuo treats his benefactor as if he is his father. Here it reveals that a true friendship tie in with filial piety. Kuo also offers Wu T ¡Ã‚ ¯ien-yu his own post as a further repayment to his  ¡Ã‚ °father ¡Ã‚ ±. The story  ¡Ã‚ °Wu Pao-an Ransoms His Friend ¡Ã‚ ± discloses the connection between friendship, repayment, and filial piety. Between people with high quality of humanity, there is a genuine friendship which acts as a bond. And this bond leads to repayment when there are favors to be repaid. A form of repayment is being filial.

Are the five precepts realistic principles for a Buddhist to live by today? Essay

I personally think that the five precepts are realistic enough because they are quite similar to the things that a Muslim may or may not do. The reason I say this is because I am a Muslim and some of these precepts are the same for me to follow in everyday life. For example, precept 2: ‘I undertake to abstain from taking what is not freely given’ In other words, it means No stealing or any form of exploitation or taking advantage of someone. This should not be hard to follow because, first of all; this is against the law and I doubt it that any other religion would allow stealing. All of the precepts are really what I, as a Muslim is not allowed to do, except the first one (‘to abstain from harming living beings’). The reason I have brought myself into this is because as I said before, I do most of these and I don’t find any of them hard to follow so why should a Buddhist? The obvious answer to the title would definitely be yes, because they are the same as what people with other faiths must not do. Precept 1 is a very simple precept and must be easy to follow, since there are millions of other vegetarians from other faiths in our world and they find it easy and realistic enough. I think that it is easy to survive by being a vegetarian, because there are a lot of other foods to eat except meat etc. Precept number 2 is also realistic because you will never be allowed to steal unless you want to, and if you are not interested to steal, then you won’t; so this one is also realistic enough as well. I would think that Precept 3 would be slightly harder to follow and less realistic because of what everyone else is doing at this moment. In the U.K and in most other countries se outside marriage is a very common thing and this might draw you in. I am not saying that you should, but some people would have sex for fun and this precept may also be interpreted as avoiding any over-indulgence, such as gluttony such as sex for fun which in this world would be hard not to have. Precept 4 is also not as realistic as 2 & 3 because these days talking behind people’s backs and lying is such a common thing that even if you don’t want to lie you will be forced into it. Precept 5 is also not realistic because everyone really has a bit of a drink and even some Buddhist do, so this is not a very strong precept; but still it wouldn’t be hard to follow. Also what would be the point of following this when some Buddhist’s drink moderately or not moderately? They still drink! Basically I think that this is the most random precept and there is no point to follow but all the other precepts should be realistic enough.

Mary Shellys Frankenstein Essay

Mary Shelly’s novel is structured in a way, which attempts to give authority to her views. Opening with an authors introduction, and supported with a preface with her famous husband. Mary Shelly’s novel starts with a series of letters claiming to know the ‘truth’ of Victor Frankenstein’s story. This family involvement, followed by professional distancing, reveals the strength of the author’s feelings on the responsibilities of family and scientists. For a century and a half, many readers of the Mary Shelly’s novel ‘Frankenstein’ have debated over which character could be associated with the expression ‘ Monster’. Mary Shelly said in the preface the reason why she produced this nineteenth century novel was a ‘ghost story’ â€Å"oh! If I could only contrive one which would frighten my reader as I myself had been frightened that night†. She wanted her readers to feel the terror that she had dreamed one night. The readers of Mary Shelly’s novel ‘ Frankenstein’ might believe that the creature is the monster, however there are two potential monsters in the novel. These two characters from the novel are the ‘Creature’ itself and the creator of the creature, Dr Victor Frankenstein. One candidate who might be believed to be the monster is Dr Victor Frankenstein. At the age of seventeen Victor’s parents’ suggested that he should become a student at the university of Ingolstadt. Unfortunately Victor’s mother passed away while giving birth to his brother. The death of his mother shocked him and caused him to search for ways to extend life. After the death of his mother, Victor took his parents’ advice and went to university. â€Å"My departure for Ingolstadt which had been deferred by these events†¦ it appeared to me sacrilege so soon to leave the repose, akin to death, of the house of mourning and to rush into the thick if life†. This suggests he wasn’t sure if it was the respectable move to make, to leave his mourning family behind and go off to university. While at university Victor became fascinated in biology: â€Å"One of the phenomena, which had peculiarly attracted my attention was the structure of the human frame, and indeed any animal endued with life†. Victor was focused to stop death. He was grieving so much because he had lost someone so important and close to him: † I thought that if I could bestow animation upon lifeless matter †¦ renew life where death had apparently devoted the body to corruption†. His fascination with extending life overtook his studying; he became so committed to finding a way, he had set himself a challenge and he was so sure to achieve that challenge. A time in the novel where we are shown that Victor is related as a monster is the time when he begins to dig up the dead and raid graveyards. â€Å"Who shall conceive the horrors of my secret toil as I dabbled among the unhallowed damps of the grave or tortured†¦ I collected bones from charnel-houses†¦ secrets of the human frame†. This is a sign of immoral, abnormal attitude and is offensive towards the bodies. The definition of a monster is a misshapen animal or plant; person of wickedness; huge animal or thing. The part of the definition where it says a person of wickedness is what should be used to describe Victor Frankenstein. No normal person would dig up the dead and use body parts to make a creation. Another way, in which Victor could be considered as the monster is the way he treated the creature once he had brought it to life. Victor disowned the creature; he refused to acknowledge it and to accept that the creature was his own: † For this I had deprived myself of rest ad health. I had desired it with an ardour†¦ at length lassitude succeeded to the tumult†¦ endeavouring to seek a few moments of forgetfulness but it was in vain†. Victor had no intention of caring for the creature, it was as if he was afraid of his own creation. He discards the Creature immediately after its creation, calling it a ‘wretch’ and leaving it to fend for itself. This shows how irresponsible he is. It is also another example of him neglecting his family, since the Creature sees him as its father. The creature approaches Victor like a baby would to its father: † He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes, if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me†¦ while a grin wrinkled his cheeks†. How could Victor abandon the creature, he had no sympathy towards it. The way in which the creature is described when it approaches Victor is just like the way a baby would approach its parents, maybe at this part of the novel, we readers are to feel sympathy for the creature and to consider Victor as the monster for the way he treated the creature, it was his own creation he should of cared for it and been its companion. Victor should of treated the creature like his own child, possibly if he did show care for the creature and not show fear, maybe the creature wouldn’t have been so vile because he knew no different. The creature didn’t know how to treat or care for other people. So really it wasn’t the creatures fault for the deaths caused and for the way in which he treated people because overall he didn’t know any different and wasn’t taught by Victor how to treat others.

Accounting Information is Objective and Neutral- myassignmenthelp

This reflection is undertaken in order to have an understanding about accounting information. Accounting is a key part of the recording the financial transactions and thereby all the financial transactions are maintained in an effective manner. I have observed that there are several characteristics of accounting information and accounting has been a subject of sustainable development from year to year and therefore there has been a development of several regulations and concepts which have been incorporated in order to assist the accountants to display the correct picture. The double entry system was introduced globally and thereby it became the foundation of accounting and in the current time period it has become one of the significant tools for understanding the profitability of an entity, but even even the liquidity and the total performance in relation to the debts and the other factors that are non-financial in nature. I have observed that because of the fact that there have been high stake level that is involved and significance is given in order to restrict the stakeholders from being misinformed and therefore the accounting entities and the other governing bodies have taken measures in order to control the level of misstatements and this explains that accounting is objective in nature. The accounting information has certain amount of objective and it is seen that all the different level of accounting information have their unique objective and thereby tries to reduce misstatements. I have even observed that neutrality is even a characteristic of accounting information. Neutrality is even known as the quality of independence from biasness. Neutrality explains that during the formulation or the incorporation of the standards, the main issue is relevance and information reliability that improves and not has an impact that the new rule may have on a specific interest. It is seen that a neutral selection among the accounting substitutes are free from bias towards a prearranged outcome. The objectives of the financial statements serve towards users of various different data who have different interests and none of the prearranged outcome is likely to be suitable to the users. I can therefore state that accounting information and practices are determined impartially with no objective of focused bias for any type of user. I have noticed that there have been significant level of transformation in the process of accounting and accounting information with the advent of time as there have been several new kinds and mechanisms that have been introduced in order to enhance the process of accounting. Accounting information has significant level of value and it is seen that value of the accounting information is used by the users and the accountants in order to find out the result that is suitable for them. It is seen that there has been a fall in the value of accounting information with the transformation in the accounting standards. I feel that accounting information has an effective role to play with the help of which economic decision making can take place and thereby improvement in the operational plan and business decisions relating to various aspects can be undertaken.   Givoly, D., Hayn, C. and Katz, S., 2017. The changing relevance of accounting information to debt holders over time. Review of Accounting Studies, 22(1), pp.64-108. Magnan, M., Menini, A. and Parbonetti, A., 2015. Fair value accounting: information or confusion for financial markets?. Review of Accounting Studies, 20(1), pp.559-591. Prasad, A. and Green, P., 2015. Organizational competencies and dynamic accounting information system capability: impact on AIS processes and firm performance. Journal of Information Systems, 29(3), pp.123-149. Sudaryanti, D., Sukoharsono, E.G., Baridwan, Z. and Mulawarman, A.D., 2015. Critical Analysis on Accounting Information Based On Pancasila Value. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 172, pp.533-539.

Professional Accountant and its Objectives Assignment

Professional Accountant and its Objectives - Assignment Example Evidently, accounting standards enhance the stakeholders’ decision-making activities by ensuring that the financial statements comply with the accounting standards. The corporate governance policies of the United Kingdom had changed after the Cadbury report. The Cadbury report emphasized that all financial reports should follow certain rules. The rules include the provisions listed in the Corporate Governance Code of the United Kingdom. The code strictly states that the United Kingdom publicly listed companies should implement all provisions of the code, especially in the preparation of the financial reports. The code prohibits the excesses of the board of directors and other parties within the organization (Solomon, 2011). Cynthia Jeffrey (2011) proposed that rules-based accounting requires that the business entities should comply with all corporate governance rules. Corporate governance includes the board of director’s strict compliance with social responsibility doctrines. Social responsibility includes ensuring all environmental protection laws are implemented. The rules include the procedures in recording business transactions. Rules must be followed at cost. There is no variation in the implementation of the rules. , International Accounting Standards Board Chairman David Tweedie insisted that the United States generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) is basically rules-based accounting (Jeffrey, 2011). The United States accounting procedure is historically pegged on rules-based accounting. United States entities implemented the United States generally accepted accounting principles in the preparation of the financial reports. Currently, many in the United Kingdom and other countries use the principles described as international accounting standards in the preparation of their financial reports. The United States-based Financial Accounting Standards Board Chairman David Tweedie insisted that the United States generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) is basically rules-based accounting (Jeffrey, 2011).